大哲学家-斯宾诺莎（Baruch de Spinoza日-日）
巴鲁赫·斯宾诺莎（日~日）西方近代哲学史重要的理性主义者，与笛卡尔和莱布尼茨齐名。 斯宾诺莎出生于阿姆斯特丹的一个从西班牙逃往荷兰的犹太家庭。年轻时进入培养拉比的宗教学校，在艰难的生活条件下，他仍然坚持哲学和科学的研究，他的思想通过通信方式传播到欧洲各地，赢得人们的尊重。他的主要著作有《笛卡尔哲学原理》、《神学政治论》、《伦理学》、《知性改进论》等。斯宾诺莎（Baruch de Spinoza，日（壬申年）~日）接受了拉丁语的训练，而正是凭借着拉丁语，斯宾诺莎得以接触笛卡尔等人的著作。他也由此渐渐脱离所谓正统的学说范围，并最终在24岁时被逐出了犹太教会堂。他最后搬出犹太人居住区，以磨镜片为生，同时进行哲学思考。斯宾诺莎此后一直过着隐居的生活。1673年普鲁士选帝侯曾邀请他到海德堡大学担任哲学教授，条件是不可提及宗教，不过斯宾诺莎婉拒。他在45岁时就去世。斯宾诺莎的祖先是居住在西班牙的斯雷翁省埃斯宾诺莎(Espinoza)镇的犹太人。1492年，因西班牙政府和天主教教会对犹太人的宗教和种族迫害，举家逃难到葡萄牙。后又于1592年逃亡到荷兰。祖父亚伯拉罕·德·斯宾诺莎是一位很受人尊敬的犹太商人，曾在阿姆斯特丹犹太人公会担任要职；父亲迈克尔·德·斯宾诺莎继承其父的事业，在阿姆斯特丹经营进出口贸易，并担任犹太人公会会长和犹太教会学校校长。斯宾诺莎出生于荷兰。他的父母亲以经营进出口贸易为生，生活颇为宽裕，斯宾诺莎也因此得以进入当地的犹太神学校，学习希伯来文、犹太法典以及中世纪的犹太哲学等。磨镜片这项工作伤害了他的健康，他在工作的时候吸入了大量的硒尘，这与他的死因--肺痨有直接的关系。《伦理学》斯宾诺莎的著作中最伟大的莫过于《几何伦理学》(Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata，简称《伦理学》)，该著作一直到斯宾诺莎死后才得以发表。该书是以欧几里得的几何学方式来书写的，一开始就给出一组公理以及各种公式，从中产生命题、证明、推论以及解释。他的其他两部重要的作品包括了《神学政治论》（TractatusTheologico-Politicus）和《政治论》（Tracta Atus Politicus'）。《神学政治论》的主题是圣经批评与政治理论，而后者则只谈政治理论。斯宾诺莎的《伦理学》讨论三个不同的主题。他首先从形而上学讲起，再转论各种炽情和意志心理学，最后阐述一种以前的形而上学和心理学作基础的伦理观。形而上学是笛卡尔的变体，心理学也带霍布斯遗风，但是伦理学却是独具一格。形而上学：斯宾诺莎的形而上学体系是巴们尼德所创始的那样类型的体系，实体只有一个，就是“神即自然”;任何有限事物不独立自存。笛卡尔认为有神，精神，物质三个实体（当然他认为只有神才是真正意义上的实体，因为所谓实体，笛卡尔认为是能够自己存在而其存在并不需要别的事物的一类事物）。斯宾诺莎则绝不同意这种看法，在他看来，思维和广延全是神（即自然或实体）的属性（attributus）。神还具有无限个其他属性，因为神必定处处无限。个别灵魂和单块物质在他看来都是形容词性的东西，这些并非实在，不过是“神在”的一些相。基督教徒信仰的那种个人永生绝无其事，只能够有越来越与神合一这种意义的个人永生。有限事物由其物理上或者逻辑上的境界限定，换句话说，由它并非某某东西限定：“规定即否定”，完全肯定性的“存在者”只能有一个，它必定绝对无限。按照他的一意见，一切事物都受着一种绝对的逻辑必然性支配。在精神领域中既没有所谓自由意志（free will），在物质世界也没有什么偶然可言。凡是发生的现实都是神的不可思议的本性的显现，所以各种事件按照逻辑讲就不可能异于现实状况。这种学说在罪恶问题上引起了困难。有一位批评者说，按照斯宾诺莎讲，万事皆由神定，因而全是善的，那么，对于杀人与盗窃而言也叫善吗？斯宾诺莎回答，在这两个事件中肯定有地方是善的，只有否定性的地方恶，可是，只有从有限的眼光来看，才存在所谓否定。唯独神完全实在，从神的角度看，没有否定。因此，我们觉得是罪的事实，被作为整体的部分去看时，其中的恶并不存在。情感理论：这一部分放在关于精神的本性与起源的行而上学讨论后面，这个讨论到后来推出“人的精神对神的永恒无限永恒的本质有适当的认识”这个惊人的命题。“炽情扰乱了我们的心，蒙蔽住我们对于整体的理智见解。”据他讲“各个事物只要它是自在的，都努力保持自己的存在。”因此起了爱，憎，和纷争。第三卷讲述的心理学完全是利己主义的心理学。按照他的意见，“自我保全”是各种炽情的根本动机，但是我们自身当中的实在，肯定性的东西，乃是把我们与整体统合起来的东西，并不是保全外表分离状态的东西，我们一体会到这一点，自我保全就改变性质。伦理学：在斯宾诺莎看来，我们所遭遇的一切实情只要是我们自身产生的，就是善的;只有从外界来的事，对我们讲才是恶的。“因为一切实情凡其致因是人的，必然是善的，所以除非通过外界原因，否则恶将不能降临与人”。所以很明显，宇宙整体遭受不到任何恶事，因为他不受外界原因的作用“我们是万有自然的一部分，所以我们遵从自然理法，如果我们对于这点有清晰判然的理解，我们的本性中由理智限定的部分，换句话说即我们自身当中较良好的部分，必定会默受临头的事，并且努力坚守此种默受”。人只要不由本愿，就是受奴役;但是，只要人借助知性把握了整体的唯一实在，人即使自由的。《伦理学》的最后一卷发挥这个学说的种种内在含义。斯宾诺莎不像斯葛多派反对所有的感情，他只是反对炽情，也就是让我们自己显示的在外界力量之下出于被动状态的那些感情。哲学思想哲学上，斯宾诺莎是一名一元论者或泛神论者。他认为宇宙间只有一种实体，即作为整体的宇宙本身，而上帝和宇宙就是一回事。他的这个结论是基于一组定义和公理，通过逻辑推理得来的。斯宾诺莎的上帝不仅仅包括了物质世界，还包括了精神世界。他认为人的智慧是上帝智慧的组成部分。斯宾诺莎还认为上帝是每件事的“内在因”，上帝通过自然法则来主宰世界，所以物质世界中发生的每一件事都有其必然性；世界上只有上帝是拥有完全自由的，而人虽可以试图去除外在的束缚，却永远无法获得自由意志。如果我们能够将事情看作是必然的，那么我们就愈容易与上帝合为一体。因此，斯宾诺莎提出我们应该“在永恒的相下”(sub specie aeternitatis)看事情。在伦理学上，斯宾诺莎认为，一个人只要受制于外在的影响，他就是处于奴役状态，而只要和上帝达成一致，人们就不再受制于这种影响，而能获得相对的自由，也因此摆脱恐惧。斯宾诺莎还主张无知是一切罪恶的根源。对于死亡的问题，斯宾诺莎的名言是：“自由人最少想到死，他的智慧不是关于死的默念，而是对于生的沉思。”他的一生也彻底地实践了这句格言，对死亡一直十分平静面对。斯宾诺莎是彻底的决定论者，他认为所有已发生事情的出现绝对贯穿着必然的作用。他认为，甚至人类的行为也是完全决定了的，自由是我们有能力知道我们已经被决定了，并且知道为什么我们要这么做。所以自由不是对发生在我们身上的事情说&不&的可能，而是说&是&并且理解为什么事情将必须那样发生的可能。斯宾诺莎的哲学非常类似斯多葛哲学，但是他在一个重要的观点上与斯多葛哲学有尖锐的分歧：他完全反对他们动机可以战胜情感的观点。相反，他主张情感只会被另一个更强的情感取代或战胜。他指出，在主动情感和被动情感有关键的分别，前者是相对可以理解的而后者不是。他也指出，具有被动情感真实动机的知识可以将其转化为主动情感，因此预见了西格蒙德·弗洛伊德心理分析的一个关键的思想。斯宾诺莎的哲学体系对之后17世纪的科学运动的意义在于其决定论的解释，为此后的科学一体化提供了蓝图。他对后来的哲学家，例如谢林、马克思、爱因斯坦、费尔巴哈等人都有过影响。主义思想斯宾诺莎主义是具有无神论或泛神论性质的哲学学说。斯宾诺莎否认有人格神、超自然神的存在，集中批判了神学目的论、拟人观和天意说，要求从自然界本身来说明自然，他认为构成万物存在和统一基础的实体是自然界，也就是神。他开创了用理性主义观点和历史的方法系统地批判《圣经》的历史，考察了宗教的起源、本质和历史作用，建立了近代西方无神论史上一个较早和较系统的体系。克服了笛卡儿二元论的缺点，把唯理论与唯物主义和泛神论结合起来。以后的哲学家称具有这种特征的学说为斯宾诺莎主义。乐诚（中国）有限公司地址：香港上环皇后大道346-348金煌行13B&专注于: 欧美东南亚移民、留学、投资居留& 香港张先生电话: +86-微信: jianghemyQQ & Email: 北京冯先生电话: +86-微信: vagabong1214QQ & Email: 史小姐电话: +86-,+852-微信: lili---shiQQ & Email: 英国郭先生电话: +44-微信: yingguolaoguoEMAIL: 关注、点赞产生美电子与通信
健身与保健
西方哲学史：从苏格拉底到萨特及其后（影印第8版）
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　　《西方哲学史：从苏格拉底到萨特及其后（影印第8版）》看点：　　看点一：兼采众长　　作者采取客观的立场，写法吸纳了诸种哲学史著述方式的长处和特点，既以轻松的笔法勾勒出哲学史的轮廓，又注重其间思想实质的联系，十分适合初阶读者。　　看点二：历史视角　　本书对哲学史有全面的把握，将思想史料转化为条理清晰的表述，突出了哲学史的发展历程，有助于了解西方哲学的来龙去脉。同时立足当下，也用适当篇幅介绍了当代哲学。　　看点三：亲切易读　　本书不断修订，内容明白晓畅，语言可读性强、易于理解。读者可通过本书阅读精妙的英文，也可和中译本相对照，深化对哲学史的认识。
　　《西方哲学史：从苏格拉底到萨特及其后》自1966年初版以来，历经七次修订，成为英语世界最畅销的哲学史入门教材。它紧跟当代哲学和哲学史研究的最新发展，是一部既植根传统又向当代开放的哲学史，堪称当代西方哲学史的主流和典范之作。　　作者以长短适当的篇幅，把西方两千多年的哲学思想作了清晰的展示。它兼采国内外书写哲学史的写法之长，善于抓住哲学家的主要思想实质进行阐述，态度客观，材料翔实且清晰明了，文笔平正而不失生动，能让读者对西方哲学的总体发展有准确的把握，为读者提供了一个简洁清晰、轻松易懂的哲学读本。　　最新第8版将旧有版本中的陈旧元素一一剔除，代之以最前沿的学术观点。作者对西方哲学史出色的驾驭功力、亲和的著述方式和地道的语言，这些在影印版中都将保留并呈现。
　　撒穆尔·伊诺克·斯通普夫（Samuel Enoch Stumpf，），芝加哥大学哲学博士、哈佛大学福特研究员、牛津大学洛克菲勒研究员。他担任万德比尔特大学哲学系主任有15年之久，并曾出任爱荷华的康奈尔学院的校长。斯通普夫也是万德比尔特大学的法律哲学教授和医学哲学教授，在哲学、医学伦理学和法理学等领域均颇有建树。　　詹姆斯·菲泽（James Fieser），普渡大学博士，现任田纳西大学哲学教授。著述有《道德哲学史》（Moral Philosophy through the Ages，2001），与人合著有《哲学入门》（A Historical Introduction to Philosophy，2002）。菲泽还与人合编《世界宗教经典》（Scriptures of the World’s Religions）一书，并创建了《哲学网络百科全书》（Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy）。
出版前言　中文版序第八版译者序第七版译者序关于作者前　言Part One　ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHY第一部分 古希腊哲学Chapter 1　Socrates' Predecessors　苏格拉底的前辈What is Permanent in Existence?　什么东西是持存的？Thales　泰勒斯Anaximander　阿那克西曼德Anaximenes　阿那克西米尼The Mathematical Basis of All Things　万物的数学基础Pythagoras　毕达哥拉斯Attempts to Explain Change　解释变化的尝试Heraclitus　赫拉克利特Parmenides　巴门尼德Zeno　芝　诺Empedocles　恩培多克勒Anaxagoras　阿那克萨戈拉The Atomists　原子论者Atoms and the Void　原子和虚空Theory of Knowledge and Ethics　知识理论和伦理学Chapter 2　The Sophists and Socrates　智者派与苏格拉底The Sophists　智者派Protagoras　普罗泰戈拉Gorgias　高尔吉亚Thrasymachus　塞拉西马柯Socrates　苏格拉底Socrates' Life　苏格拉底的生平Socrates as a Philosopher　作为哲学家的苏格拉底Socrates' Theory of Knowledge: Intellectual Midwifery苏格拉底的知识理论：思想的助产术Socrates' Moral Thought　苏格拉底的道德思想Socrates' Trial and Death　苏格拉底的审判和死亡Chapter 3　Plato　柏拉图Plato's Life　柏拉图的生平Theory of Knowledge　知识理论The Cave　洞　穴The Divided Line　线　段Theory of the Forms　理念论Moral Philosophy　道德哲学The Concept of the Soul　灵魂概念The Cause of Evil: Ignorance or Forgetfulness　恶的原因：无知或遗忘Recovering Lost Morality　恢复失去的道德Virtue as Fulfillment of Function　作为功能之实现的德性Political Philosophy　政治哲学The State as a Giant Person　巨人般的国家The Philosopher-King　哲学王The Virtues in the State　国家中的德性The Decline of the Ideal State　理想国的衰败View of the Cosmos　宇宙观Chapter 4　Aristotle　亚里士多德Aristotle's Life　亚里士多德的生平Logic　逻辑学The Categories and the Starting Point of Reasoning　范畴和推理的起点The Syllogism　三段论Metaphysics　形而上学The Problem of Metaphysics Defined　界定形而上学的问题Substance as the Primary Essence of Things　作为事物的首要本质的实体Matter and Form　质料和形式The Process of Change: The Four Causes　变化的过程：四因Potentiality and Actuality　潜能与现实The Unmoved Mover　不被推动的推动者The Place of Humans: Physics, Biology, and Psychology人的地位：物理学、生物学和心理学Physics　物理学Biology　生物学Psychology　心理学Ethics　伦理学Types of &Ends&　&目的&的类型The Function of Human Beings　人的功能Happiness as the End　作为目的的幸福Virtue as the Golden Mean　作为中道的德性Deliberation and Choice　审慎和选择Contemplation　沉　思Politics　政治学Types of States　国家类型Differences and Inequalities　差异与不平等Good Government and Revolution　好的政体和革命Philosophy of Art　艺术哲学Part Two　HELLENISTIC AND MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY第二部分 希腊化时期和中世纪的哲学Chapter 5　Classical Philosophy after Aristotle亚里士多德以后的古代哲学Epicureanism　伊壁鸠鲁主义Physics and Ethics　物理学与伦理学God and Death　神和死亡The Pleasure Principle　快乐原则Pleasure and Social Justice　快乐与社会正义Stoicism　斯多噶主义Wisdom and Control versus Pleasure　相对于快乐的智慧和控制Stoic Theory of Knowledge　斯多噶学派的知识论Matter as the Basis of All Reality　作为一切实在之基础的物质God in Everything　万物中的神Fate and Providence　命运和天意Human Nature　人的本性Ethics and the Human Drama　伦理学和人的戏剧The Problem of Freedom　自由的问题Cosmopolitanism and Justice　世界主义和正义Skepticism　怀疑主义The Search for Mental Peace　寻求心灵的安宁Evident versus Nonevident Matters　明显的事情和不明显的事情Plotinus　普罗提诺Plotinus's Life　普罗提诺的生平God as the One　作为太一的神The Metaphor of Emanation　流溢的隐喻Salvation　得　救Chapter 6　Augustine　奥古斯丁Augustine's Life　奥古斯丁的生平Human Knowledge　人类知识Faith and Reason　信仰与理性Overcoming Skepticism　克服怀疑论Knowledge and Sensation　知识与感觉The Theory of Illumination　光照论God　上　帝The Created World　被造世界Creation from Nothing　从无中创世The Seminal Principles　种　质Moral Philosophy　道德哲学The Role of Love　爱的作用Free Will as the Cause of Evil　作为恶的原因的自由意志Justice　正　义History and the Two Cities　历史和两座城Chapter 7　Philosophy in the Early Middle Ages中世纪早期的哲学Boethius　波埃修Boethius's Life　波埃修的生平The Consolation of Philosophy　哲学的慰藉The Problem of Universals　共相的问题Pseudo-Dionysius　伪狄奥尼修斯Knowledge of God　对上帝的知识Erigena　约翰·司各脱·爱留根纳Erigena's Life　约翰·司各脱·爱留根纳的生平The Division of Nature　自然的区分New Solutions to the Problem of Universals　解决共相问题的新方法Odo and Guillaume: Exaggerated Realism　奥多和威廉姆：极端实在论Roscellinus: Nominalism　洛色林：唯名论Abelard: Conceptualism or Moderate Realism阿伯拉尔：概念论或温和实在论Anselm's Ontological Argument　安瑟伦的本体论证明Anselm's Realism　安瑟伦的实在论The Ontological Argument　本体论证明Gaunilon's Rebuttal　高尼罗的反驳Anselm's Reply to Gaunilon　安瑟伦对高尼罗的回答Faith and Reason in Muslim and Jewish Thought穆斯林和犹太思想中的信仰和理性Avicenna　阿维森纳Averro s　阿威罗伊Moses Maimonides　摩西·迈蒙尼德Chapter 8　Aquinas and His Late Medieval Successors阿奎那和他的中世纪晚期的继承者Aquinas's Life　阿奎那的生平Bonaventura and the University of Paris　波那文都和巴黎大学Philosophy and Theology　哲学与神学Faith and Reason　信仰与理性Proofs of God's Existence　上帝存在的证明Proofs from Motion, Efficient Cause, and Necessary Being从运动、致动因以及必然存在出发的证明Proofs from Perfection and Order　从完满性和秩序出发的证明Assessment of the Proofs　对证明的评价Knowledge of God's Nature　对上帝本性的知识The Negative Way (Via Negativa)　否定的方式Knowledge by Analogy　类比的知识Creation　创　世Is the Created Order Eternal?　被创造的秩序是永恒的吗？Creation out of Nothing　无中创世Is This the Best Possible World?　这是最好的可能世界吗？Evil as Privation　作为缺乏的恶The Range of Created Being: The Chain of Being被创造的存在的等级排列：存在之链Morality and Natural Law　道德和自然法Moral Constitution　道德的构成Natural Law　自然法The State　国　家Human Nature and Knowledge　人的本性和知识Human Nature　人的本性Knowledge　知　识Scotus, Ockham, and Eckhart　司各脱、奥康以及艾克哈特Voluntarism　唯意志论Nominalism　唯名论Mysticism　神秘论Part Three　EARLY MODERN PHILOSOPHY第三部分 近代早期的哲学Chapter 9　Philosophy during the Renaissance文艺复兴时期的哲学The Closing of the Middle Ages　中世纪的结束Humanism and the Italian Renaissance人文主义和意大利文艺复兴运动Pico　皮　科Machiavelli　马基雅维利The Reformation　宗教改革Luther　路　德Erasmus　伊拉斯谟Skepticism and Faith　怀疑论和信仰Montaigne　蒙　田Pascal　帕斯卡The Scientific Revolution　科学革命New Discoveries and New Methods　新的发现和新的方法Modern Atomism　近代原子论Bacon　弗朗西斯·培根Bacon's Life　培根的生平Distempers of Learning　学术的病状Idols of the Mind　心灵的假相The Inductive Method　归纳的方法Hobbes　托马斯·霍布斯Hobbes's Life　霍布斯的生平Influence of Geometry upon Hobbes's Thought　几何学对霍布斯思想的影响Bodies in Motion: The Object of Thought　运动中的物体：思想的对象Mechanical View of Human Thought　关于人的思想的机械论观点Political Philosophy and Morality　政治哲学与道德The State of Nature　自然状态Obligation in the State of Nature　自然状态中的义务The Social Contract　社会契约Civil Law versus Natural Law　民法对自然法Chapter 10　Rationalism on the Continent　大陆理性主义Descartes　笛卡尔Descartes's Life　笛卡尔的生平The Quest for Certainty　对确定性的追求Descartes's Method　笛卡尔的方法Methodic Doubt　作为方法的怀疑The Existence of God and External Things　上帝和外部事物的存在Mind and Body　心灵和身体Spinoza　斯宾诺莎Spinoza's Life　斯宾诺莎的生平Spinoza's Method　斯宾诺莎的方法God: Substance and Attribute　上帝：实体和属性The World as Modes of God's Attributes　世界作为上帝属性的样式Knowledge, Mind, and Body　知识、心灵和身体Ethics　伦理学Leibniz　莱布尼茨Leibniz's Life　莱布尼茨的生平Substance　实　体God's Existence　上帝的存在Knowledge and Nature　知识和自然Chapter 11　Empiricism in Britain　英国经验主义Locke　洛　克Locke's Life　洛克的生平Locke's Theory of Knowledge　洛克的知识理论Moral and Political Theory　洛克的道德和政治理论Berkeley　贝克莱Berkeley's Life　贝克莱的生平The Nature of Existence　存在的本质Matter and Substance　物质和实体Hume　休　谟Hume's Life　休谟的生平Hume's Theory of Knowledge　休谟的知识理论What Exists External to Us?　什么存在于我们之外？Ethics　伦理学Chapter 12　Enlightenment Philosophy　启蒙哲学Deism and Atheism　自然神论和无神论English Deism　英国自然神论French Philosophes　法国哲人派Rousseau　卢　梭Rousseau's Life　卢梭的生平The Paradox of Learning　学问的悖论The Social Contract　社会契约Reid　锐　德Reid's Life　锐德的生平Criticism of the Theory of Ideas　对观念论的批判Commonsense Beliefs and Direct Realism　常识信念与直接实在论Part Four　LATE MODERN AND NINETEENTHCENTURY PHILOSOPHY第四部分 近代晚期和19 世纪哲学Chapter 13　Kant　康　德Kant's Life　康德的生平The Shaping of Kant's Problem　康德问题的形成Kant's Critical Philosophy and his Copernican Revolution康德的批判哲学和他的哥白尼革命The Way of Critical Philosophy　批判哲学的方法The Nature of a Priori Knowledge　先天知识的本质The Synthetic a Priori　先天综合判断Kant's Copernican Revolution　康德的哥白尼革命The Structure of Rational Thought　理性思想的结构The Categories of Thought and the Forms of Intuition　思想范畴和直观形式The Self and the Unity of Experience　自我和经验的统一Phenomenal and Noumenal Reality　现象实在和本体实在Transcendental Ideas of Pure Reason as Regulative Concepts作为调节性概念的纯粹理性的先验理念The Antinomies and the Limits of Reason　二律背反和理性的限度Proofs of God's Existence　上帝存在的证明Practical Reason　实践理性The Basis of Moral Knowledge　道德知识的基础Morality and Rationality　道德与理性&Good& Defined as the Good Will　被定义为善良意志的&善&The Categorical Imperative　定言命令The Moral Postulates　道德悬设Aesthetics: The Beautiful　美学：美The Beautiful as Independent Pleasant Satisfaction美是不带任何利害而令人愉悦的东西The Beautiful as an Object of Universal Delight　美是普遍愉悦的对象Finality versus Purpose in the Beautiful Object美的对象中的目的与合目的性Necessity, Common Sense, and the Beautiful　必然性、共通感和美Chapter 14　German Idealism　德国唯心主义Kant's Impact on German Thought　康德对德国思想的影响Hegel　黑格尔Hegel's Life　黑格尔的生平Absolute Mind　绝对精神The Nature of Reality　实在的本质Ethics and Politics　伦理与政治Absolute Spirit　绝对精神Schopenhauer　叔本华Schopenhauer's Life　叔本华的生平The Principle of Sufficient Reason　充足理由律The World as Will and Idea　作为意志和表象的世界The Ground of Pessimism　悲观主义的基础Is There Any Escape from the &Will&?　有可能摆脱&意志&吗？Chapter 15　Utilitarianism and Positivism功利主义和实证主义Bentham　边　沁Bentham's Life　边沁的生平The Principle of Utility　功利原则Law and Punishment　法律和惩罚Bentham's Radicalism　边沁的激进主义John Stuart Mill　约翰·斯图亚特·密尔Mill's Life　密尔的生平Mill's Utilitarianism　密尔的功利主义Liberty　自　由Comte　孔　德Comte's Life and Times　孔德的生平和时代Positivism Defined　实证主义的定义The Law of the Three Stages　三阶段法则Comte's Sociology and &Religion of Humanity&孔德的社会学和&人道教&Chapter 16　Kierkegaard, Marx, and Nietzsche克尔恺廓尔、马克思与尼采Kierkegaard　克尔恺廓尔Kierkegaard's Life　克尔恺廓尔的生平Human Existence　人的存在Truth as Subjectivity　作为主观性的真理The Aesthetic Stage　美学阶段The Ethical Stage　伦理阶段The Religious Stage　宗教阶段Marx　马克思Marx's Life and Influences　马克思的生平和影响The Epochs of History: Marx's Dialectic历史的诸阶段：马克思的辩证法The Substructure: The Material Order　基础：物质秩序The Alienation of Labor　劳动异化The Superstructure: The Origin and Role of Ideas上层建筑：观念的来源和作用Nietzsche　尼　采Nietzsche's Life　尼采的生平&God Is Dead&　&上帝死了&The Apollonian versus Dionysian　阿波罗精神与狄俄尼索斯精神Master Morality versus Slave Morality　主人道德与奴隶道德The Will to Power　权力意志Revaluation of All Morals　重估一切道德The Superperson　超　人Part Five　TWENTIETH-CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY第五部分 20 世纪和当代哲学Chapter 17　Pragmatism and Process Philosophy实用主义和过程哲学Pragmatism　实用主义Peirce　皮尔士Peirce's Life　皮尔士的生平A Theory of Meaning　意义理论The Role of Belief　信念的地位The Elements of Method　方法的要素James　詹姆斯James's Life　詹姆斯的生平Pragmatism as a Method　作为方法的实用主义The Pragmatic Theory of Truth　实用主义的真理论Free Will　自由意志The Will to Believe　相信的意志Dewey　杜　威Dewey's Life　杜威的生平The Spectator versus Experience　旁观者与经验Habit, Intelligence, and Learning　习惯、智力和学习Value in a World of Fact　事实世界里的价值Process Philosophy　过程哲学Bergson　柏格森Bergson's Life　柏格森的生平Going Around versus Entering Into　绕行和进入The Scientific Way of Analysis　科学的分析方法The Metaphysical Way of Intuition　形而上学的直觉方法The Process of Duration　绵延的过程Evolution and the Vital Impulse　进化和生命冲动Morality and Religion　道德和宗教Whitehead　怀特海Whitehead's Life　怀特海的生平The Error of Simple Location　简单定位的错误Self-Consciousness　自我意识Prehension　把　握Eternal Objects　永恒客体Chapter 18　Analytic Philosophy　分析哲学Russell　伯特兰·罗素Russell's Mission　罗素的任务Logical Atomism　逻辑原子主义Problems with Logical Atomism　逻辑原子主义的困难Logical Positivism　逻辑实证主义The Principle of Verification　证实原则Carnap's Logical Analysis　卡尔纳普的逻辑分析Problems with Logical Positivism　逻辑实证主义的疑难Quine's Critique of Empiricism　蒯因对经验主义的批判Wittgenstein　维特根斯坦Wittgenstein's Road to Philosophy　维特根斯坦的哲学之路The New Wittgenstein　新的维特根斯坦Language Games and Following Rules　语言游戏和遵守规则Clarifying Metaphysical Language　澄清形而上学的语言Austin　约翰·奥斯汀Austin's Unique Approach　奥斯汀的独特方法The Notion of &Excuses&　&辩解&的概念The Benefits of Ordinary Language　日常语言的优点Chapter 19　Phenomenology and Existentialism现象学与存在主义Husserl　埃德蒙德·胡塞尔Husserl's Life and Influence　胡塞尔的生平及影响The Crisis of European Science　欧洲科学的危机Descartes and Intentionality　笛卡尔和意向性Phenomena and Phenomenological Bracketing　现象和现象学的加括号The Life-World　生活世界Heidegger　马丁·海德格尔Heidegger's Life　海德格尔的生平Dasein as Being-in-the-World　作为在世的此在Dasein as Concern　作为操心的此在Religious Existentialism　宗教存在主义Jaspers's Existence Philosophy　雅斯贝尔斯的生存哲学Marcel's Existentialism　马塞尔的存在主义Sartre　让-保罗·萨特Sartre's Life　萨特的生平Existence Precedes Essence　存在先于本质Freedom and Responsibility　自由和责任Nothingness and Bad Faith　虚无与坏的信仰Human Consciousness　人的意识Marxism and Freedom Revisited　马克思主义与重新检讨自由Merleau-Ponty　莫里斯·梅洛-庞蒂Merleau-Ponty's Life　梅洛-庞蒂的生平The Primacy of Perception　知觉的第一性The Relativity of Knowledge　认识的相对性Perception and Politics　知觉与政治Chapter 20　Recent Philosophy　 晚近的哲学The Mind-Body Problem　身心问题Ryle's Ghost in the Machine　赖尔的机器中的幽灵Identity Theory and Functionalism　同一论和功能主义Searle's Chinese Room Argument　塞尔的中文房间论证Rorty　罗　蒂Rorty's Analytic Philosophy　罗蒂的分析哲学The Influence of Pragmatism　实用主义的影响The Contingency of Language　语言的偶然性The Contingency of Selfhood　自我的偶然性The Contingency of Community　共同体的偶然性Virtue Theory Revisited　重提美德理论Anscombe's Defense　安斯康贝的辩护Noddings's Defense　诺丁斯的辩护Virtue Epistemology　美德认识论Continental Philosophy　大陆哲学Structuralism　结构主义Post-Structuralism　后结构主义Postmodernism　后现代主义Glossary of Key Concepts　重要词汇Selected Bibliography　延伸阅读Index　索　引
　　第八版译者序　　美国学者斯通普夫和菲泽两位教授所著《西方哲学史》自2003 年第七版出版后，最近经过修订的第八版面世了，仅此便足以说明这本书在国外英语世界受欢迎的程度，以及作者不断修正和补充自己的思想的“日新”精神。我曾在2005 年出版的该书第七版中译本序中预言：“可以预料，只要作者健在，隔几年就会有一部新的哲学史问世。史家的思想紧紧地与时代的进展平行，这正是哲学史家所努力追求的一种境界。”目前，这一预言已被证实。《西方哲学史》第八版，正是作者们随着自己的研究进展和学术界新的需要的产生而作了诸多改动和增删而成的。除了其他地方之外，一个最明显的改动是，这一版增加了一章，即在“大陆理性主义”和“英国经验主义”之后，加了一个“启蒙哲学”（包括“自然神论和无神论”、“卢梭”、“锐德”）作为第12 章，所以全书就由19 章扩展到了20 章。相对于以往的版本，这是一个极其重要的补充，尤其是对卢梭的补入更是意义非凡。现代人往往把卢梭看作西方哲学甚至一般思想发展的一个转折点，例如罗素在其《西方哲学史》中的最后一个标题就是“从卢梭到现代”。至少，自康德以来的整个西方近现代思想离开了卢梭就不怎么好讲了。　　此次第八版的翻译，主要得力于我的博士生匡宏君的全身心投入。当然，整个翻译仍是建立在第七版已有的译文基础上的，但由于第八版作者随处都有修改和增删，所以匡宏君等于是从头至尾将本书校改并在许多地方补译了一遍。无疑，这是一个非常令人头疼的工作。译者既需顾及原译文，再次推敲每一个句子和用词，又要根据改变了的英文原文加以修改和补充，还要注意修改和补充的地方和原来的译文保持基本一致，这比自己独立地重译一本书要麻烦得多。更值得一提的是，第七版原有的译文经过匡宏的再次斟酌和润色，不但比原来更加准确了，而且行文更加流畅华美，更具可读性了。匡宏是学外语出身的，并且已经有一个很稳定的教师工作，仅仅因为自己对哲学的痴迷爱好，而转向了对西方哲学的学习和研究。自从五年前他考上我的外国哲学硕士研究生时起，我就发现他对哲学问题的确具有超出一般人的领悟能力，不学哲学似乎有些可惜。而在这项开始于大半年前的翻译工作上，他再次充分表现了他的这种良好素质。　　按照出版社的要求，匡宏还承担了为全书做一个详细的术语索引的繁重任务。这也是本书翻译相对于第七版翻译的一个重要的改进。我曾经在一篇文章中谈到，今后凡翻译哲学的专业学术著作，应该把做术语索引当作一项必要的学术规范来完成。然而我自己深深知道，这件工作有多么烦人。它不只是一个简单地将所有术语搜集起来按次序编排于书后的事，而且也是对自己的翻译的一项严格的检验。为了避免或至少尽可能减少一词多译或多词一译的情况，译者必须以极大的耐心反复推敲每一个术语的最佳译法，每一改动都“牵一发而动全身”，不得不对全书其他地方的同一词汇进行再斟酌，由此还往往影响到对已经译好的句子推倒重译。更有难度的是，一部西方哲学史的翻译还不比对某个哲学家的著作的翻译，其中的同一个词汇在历史上各个哲学家那里的用法经常有很大的出入，甚至不可能有一个前后一致的“定译”。但正因为如此，一个较全面的术语索引就更显得必要了，读者由此可以很清楚地看出和查到整个西方哲学发展中那些重要的术语的来龙去脉，极为有利于从思想发展线索的角度理清西方哲学的源和流。所以对于中国的读者来说，我认为做术语索引（以词汇为单位）比起做主题索引（以命题为单位）来更具重要性。　　这次校改和补译，我和匡宏都添加了一些译者注，其中有些是纠正作者的个别明显错误的，这决不表明我们比作者更高明。当今时代知识爆炸，不可能再产生如同古代亚里士多德和近代黑格尔那样的百科全书式的学者，任何人都只能在他所熟悉的一个或几个领域里独领风骚。但我们的任务不是和作者讨论问题，而只是翻译。之所以还是要就随处发现的一些问题提出来加以纠正，是为了让读者（其中大部分可能是大学生）能够更加客观地看待国外学者的学术观点，不要盲从，不要浅尝辄止。其实就连本书的作者也在不断修正他们自己的观点，例如在对马克思的理解上，这一版就比第七版有一定的改进。当然从总体上看，还有不尽人意的地方，如对德国古典哲学中费希特和谢林哲学的忽视，对作为现代哲学一大流派的哲学解释学的遗忘，我们希望作者将来有机会再作增补。另外，全书的引文全部都没有注明出处，这也是我们对本书不甚满意的地方，这使得本书具有一种不容讨论的权威姿态。 我不知道西方人怎么看待这样的风格，但就连独断地将自己的观点强加于人并因此而颇遭非议的黑格尔，在他的《哲学史讲演录》中都老老实实地一一注明引文来源，文德尔班的《哲学史教程》亦是如此；倒是英美哲学家如罗素和梯利的《西方哲学史》（均有中译本），要么没有引文注释，甚至没有引文（如梯利），要么引文很少，主要是作者在那里侃侃而谈（如罗素）。罗素是宁可大段引证希腊悲剧和莎士比亚，而不引康德和黑格尔的，即使要引，也只告诉你出自哪本书，至于页码，你用不着知道。难怪他这本书得的是诺贝尔文学奖。所以我猜想，英美的这些通史著作虽然号称是大学教材，其实主要是给业余爱好者和高中生作为闲书来看的。果真如此，那也不妨聊备一格。但我们所译的这本书却是有不少的引文，放在引号中并且用了小号字，却不注明任何出处，实在不应该，至少有损于学术规范的严肃性。希望读者不要读了本书以后，就以为当今的学术都可以这样做了。至于本书的优点和长处，我在第七版的中译者序中已经说过了，这里不再重复。　　匡宏的译稿完成后，我又对他所改动和加译的部分作了大致的审查，少数地方作了再次的改动和调整，然后再让他作了最后的校订。我想经过这样反复的打磨，这本书的译文质量应该有比较大的提高。当然，有经验的译者都知道，这样大部头著作的翻译，要想完全不出错几乎是不可能的。所以我们也期望有识者在阅读过程中随时向我们指正，以便我们进一步改进。　　邓晓芒　　2008 年11 月，于珞珈山
　　（本书）对于一般读者来说不失为一部精炼而又明白易晓的哲学史教本，尤其是书中最后部分（即有关20世纪的西方哲学）是过去一般的哲学史教本甚少涉及的，对读者颇为便利。　　——何兆武，著名翻译家，思想文化史学者　　斯通普夫和菲泽所著《西方哲学史》至今已出第八版，看来颇受欢迎。作者避免了一般哲学写作的弊端，结合时代与当今哲学的发展，利用其对哲学敏锐而深刻的思考，成就了这样一本长达500余页、详尽但不失情趣的哲学读本。　　——赵汀阳，中国社会科学院哲学研究所研究员　　我曾在2005年出版的该书第七版中译本序中预言：“可以预料，只要作者健在，隔几年就会有一部新的哲学史问世。史家的思想紧紧地与时代的进展平行，这正是哲学史家所努力追求的一种境界。”目前，这一预言已被证实。　　——邓晓芒，武汉大学教授
　　Chapter 2
The Sophists and Socrates　　第二章
智者派与苏格拉底　　SOCRATES
苏格拉底　　Many Athenians mistook Socrates for a Sophist. The fact is that Socrates was one of the Sophists' keenest critics. That Socrates should have been identified with them was due in part to his relentless analysis of any and every subject-a technique also employed by the Sophists. Nevertheless, there was a fundamental difference between the Sophists and Socrates. The Sophists split hairs to show that equally good arguments could be advanced on either side of any issue. They were skeptics who doubted that there could be any certain or reliable knowledge. Moreover, they concluded that since all knowledge is relative, moral standards are also relative. Socrates, on the other hand, had a different motivation for his constant argumentation. He was committed to the pursuit of truth and considered it his mission to seek out the basis for stable and certain knowledge. He was also attempting to discover the foundation of the good life. As he pursued his mission, Socrates devised a method f he linked knowing and doing, so that to know the good is to do the good. In that sense &knowledge is virtue.& Unlike the Sophists, then, Socrates engaged in argumentation, not to attain ends destructive of truth or to develop pragmatic skills among lawyers and politicians, but to achieve substantive concepts of truth and goodness.　　Socrates' Life
苏格拉底的生平　　Seldom has there been a time and place so rich in genius as the Athens into which Socrates was born in 470 BCE. By this time the playwright Aeschylus had written some of his great dramatic works. The playwrights Euripides and Sophocles were young boys who would go on to produce great tragedies that Socrates may well have attended. Pericles, who was to usher in a great age of democracy and the flowering of the arts, was still a young man. Socrates may have seen the Parthenon and the statues of Phidias completed during his lifetime. By this time, too, Persia had been defeated, and Athens was becoming a naval power with control over much of the Aegean Sea. Athens had reached a level of unprecedented power and splendor. Although Socrates grew up in a golden age, his declining years were to see Athens defeated in war and his own life brought to an end in prison. In 399 BCE, at the age of 71, he drank hemlock poison in compliance with the death sentence issued by the court that tried him.　　Socrates wrote nothing. Most of what we know about him has been preserved by three of his famous younger contemporaries-Aristophanes, Xenophon, and, most importantly, Plato. From these sources Socrates emerges as an intense genius who, along with extraordinary intellectual rigor, possessed a personal warmth and a fondness for humor. He was a robust man with great powers of physical endurance. In his playful comedy The Clouds, Aristophanes depicts Socrates as a strutting waterfowl, poking fun at his habit of rolling his eyes and referring impishly to his &pupils& and &thinking shop.& From Xenophon comes the portrait of a loyal soldier who had a passion for discussing the requirements of morality and who inevitably attracted younger people who sought his advice. Plato confirms this general portrait and in addition pictures Socrates as a man with a deep sense of mission and absolute moral purity. In the Symposium Plato relates how Alcibiades, a fair youth, expected to win the amorous affections of Socrates, contriving in various ways to be alone with him. But, Alcibiades says, &nothing of the sort occurred at all: he would merely converse with me in his usual manner, and when he had spent the day with me he would leave me and go his way.& In military campaigns Socrates could go without food longer than anyone else. Others wrapped themselves up with &unusual care& against the bitter cold of winter, using &felt and little fleeces& over their shoes. But Socrates, Alcibiades says, &walked out in that weather, dressed in a coat that he was always inclined to wear, and he made his way more easily over the ice without shoes than the rest of us did in our shoes.&　　Socrates was capable of intense and sustained concentration. On one occasion during a military campaign, he stood in deep contemplation for a day and night, &till dawn c then walked away after offering a prayer to the sun.& He frequently received messages or warnings from a mysterious &voice,& or what he called his daimon. Although this &supernatural& sign invaded his thoughts from early childhood, it suggests more than anything else Socrates' &visionary& nature, particularly his sensitivity to the moral qualities of human actions that make life worth living. He must have been familiar with the natural science of the earlier Greek philosophers, although he does say in Plato's Apology that &the simple truth is, O Athenians, that I have nothing to do with physical speculations.& For him such speculations gave way to the more urgent questions about human nature, truth, and goodness. The decisive event that confirmed his mission as a moral philosopher was the reply of the Delphic Oracle. As the story goes, one day a young religious zealot named Chaerophon went to the temple of Apollo near Delphi and asked whether there was any living person who was wiser than S the priestess replied that there was not. Socrates interpreted this reply to mean that he was the wisest because he realized and admitted his own ignorance. In this attitude Socrates set out on his quest for unshakable truth and wisdom.　　Socrates as a Philosopher
作为哲学家的苏格拉底　　Because Socrates left no writings of his own, there is today some disagreement over what philosophical ideas can be properly attributed to him. Our most extensive sources of his thought are the Dialogues of Plato, in which he is the leading character. But the persistent question is whether Plato is here reporting what Socrates actually taught or is expressing his own ideas through the figure of Socrates. Some argue that the Socrates found in Plato's dialogues is the historically correct Socrates. This would mean that Socrates must get all the credit for the novel philosophical activity these dialogues contain. On this view Plato would get credit only for the literary form he devised for preserving, elaborating on, and lending precision and color to Socrates' thought. On the other hand, Aristotle distinguished between the philosophical contributions made by Socrates and Plato. Aristotle gave Socrates credit for &inductive arguments and universal definitions,& and to Plato he ascribed the development of the famous theory of Forms-the notion that universal archetypes exist independently of the particular things that embody them. In essence, the argument is over whether Socrates or Plato developed the theory of Forms. Since Aristotle was himself particularly interested in this subject and had discussed it at length with Plato in the Academy, it seems reasonable to suppose that his distinction between Socrates' and Plato's ideas is accurate. At the same time some of the early dialogues appear to represent Socrates' own thought, as in the case of the Apology and the Euthyphro. The most plausible solution to the problem, therefore, is to accept portions of both views. Thus, we can agree that much of the earlier dialogues are portrayals of Socrates' philosophic activity, while the later dialogues especially represent Plato's own philosophic development, including his formulation of the metaphysical theory of the Forms. On this basis we should see Socrates as an original philosopher who developed a new method of intellectual inquiry.　　If Socrates was to be successful in overcoming the relativism and skepticism of the Sophists, he had to discover some immovable foundation upon which to build an edifice of knowledge. Socrates discovered this foundation within people, and not in the facts of the external world. The inner life, said Socrates, is the seat of a unique activity-the activity of knowing, which leads to the practical activity of doing. To describe this activity, Socrates developed the conception of the soul, or psyche. For him the soul was not any particular faculty, nor was it any special kind of substance. Instead, it was the capacity for intell it was a person's conscious personality. Socrates further described what he meant by the soul as &that within us in virtue of which we are pronounced wise or foolish, good or bad.& By describing it in these terms, Socrates identified the soul with the normal powers of intelligence and character, not as some ghostly substance. The soul was the structure of personality. However difficult it may have been for Socrates to describe exactly what the soul is, he was sure that the activity of the soul is to know and to influence or even direct and govern a person's daily conduct. Although for Socrates the soul was not a thing, he could say that our greatest concern should be the proper care of our souls so as to &make the soul as good as possible.& We take best care of our souls when we understand the difference between fact and fancy, and thereby build our thought upon a knowledge of what human life is really like. Having attained such knowledge, those who have the proper care of their soul in mind will conduct their behavior in accordance with their knowledge of true moral values. In a nutshell Socrates was primarily concerned with the good life, and not with mere contemplation.　　For Socrates the key point in this conception of the soul concerns our conscious awareness of what some words mean. To know that some things contradict others-for example, that justice cannot mean harming others-is a typical example of what the soul can discover simply by using its abilities to know. We thus do violence to our human nature when we act in defiance of this knowledge, such as when we harm someone while fully aware that such behavior is contrary to our knowledge of justice. Socrates was certain that people could attain sure and reliable knowledge, and that only such knowledge could be the proper basis of morality. His first major task, therefore, was to clarify for himself and his followers just how one attains reliable knowledge.　　……
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